Table of contents
1.1. Direction of flow
1.2. Cylinder and exhaust arrangements
1.3. Speed of rotation
2.1. Output limitations
2.1.1. Steam valve pressure drop
2.1.2. Swallowing capacity
2.2. Moving blades
2.2.1. Impulse-type turbine
2.2.2. Reaction-type turbine
2.2.3. Effect on turbine design
2.2.4. Blade efficiency
2.2.5. Modern blading designs
2.2.6. LP turbine blading
2.3. The effect of clearances on real designs
2.3.1. Profile loss
2.3.2. Secondary loss
2.3.3. Tip leakage
2.3.4. Disc windage
2.3.5. Lacing wires
2.3.6. Other losses
2.3.7. Wetness loss
2.3.8. Annulus loss
2.4. Stage efficiency and the condition line
2.4.1. Efficiency of stage
2.4.2. The condition line
2.4.3. Cylinder efficiency
2.4.4. Leaving loss
2.4.5. Hood loss
2.4.6. Wetness loss
2.4.7. Partial admission
3. Thermodynamics of the steam cycle
3.1. Development of the modern steam cycle
3.1.1. The steam cycle
3.1.2. The Rankine cycle
3.1.3. Practical cycle using superheat
3.1.4. The reheat cycle
3.1.5. Regenerative feedheating
3.2. Cycle efficiency and heat rate
3.2.1. Cylinder efficiency
3.2.2. Heat rate
3.3. Terminal conditions
3.3.1. Effect of steam inlet conditions
3.3.2. Effect of reheat conditions
3.3.3. Effect of pressure loss in pipework and valves
3.3.4. Effect of final feed temperatures
3.3.5. Effect of exhaust pressure
3.4. Superheat cycle
3.4.1. Steam conditions
3.4.2. Reheat
3.4.3. Double reheat
3.4.4. CEGB cycles
3.4.5. Turbine designs
3.5. Wet steam cycle
3.5.1. The PWR steam cycle
3.5.2. Cycle considerations
3.5.3. Full-speed or half-speed machines
4. Economics of the steam cycle
4.1. Choice of exhaust pressure
4.1.1. Thermodynamic optimisation
4.1.2. General economic optimisation of plant
4.1.3. Economic optimisation of exhaust pressure, condenser and CW system
4.2. Regenerative feedheating
4.2.1. Feedheating plant stages — superheat cycles
4.2.2. Feedheating plant stages — wet steam cycle
4.2.3. Feedwater de-aeration
4.2.4. Low pressure feedwater heaters
4.2.5. High pressure feedwater heaters
4.2.6. Summary
4.3. Choice of feed pump and drive system
4.3.1. Feed pump size and number
4.3.2. Feed pump duty, margins, and the need for variable speed
4.3.3. Economic comparison of steam turbine drives with electric motor drives
4.3.4. Economic comparison of variable-speed motor (VSM) drive with induction motor plus fluid-coupling drive
4.3.5. Example of the results of an overall comparison of the through-life costs of four feed pump system options
4.4. Turbine by-pass systems
4.4.1. Superheat plant
4.4.2. By-pass capacity
4.4.3. System effects
4.4.4. Improvement of start-up capability
4.4.5. PWR wet steam plant
5.1. Impulse stages
5.1.1. Moving blades — details and construction
5.1.2. Fixed blades — details and construction
5.1.3. Velocity-compounded stage
5.2. Reaction stages
5.2.1 Fixed and moving blades — details and construction
5.3. Low pressure stages
5.3.1. Aerodynamic and mechanical constraints
5.3.2. Blade tip restraint
5.3.3. Baumann exhaust
5.4. Moving blade root attachments
5.4.1. Fir-tree roots
5.4.2. Pinned roots
5.5. Diaphragm construction and support
5.5.1. Kinematic support
5.5.2. Radial support pads
5.5.3. Diaphragm construction
5.6. Blading materials
5.6.1. 12% Cr steels
5.6.2. Titanium
5.7. Blade vibration control
5.7.1. Natural frequencies and excitation frequencies
5.7.2. Sources of vibration excitation
5.7.3. Verification of estimated natural frequencies and wheel chamber tests
5.7.4. Methods of vibration control
5.8. Erosion protection
5.8.1. Erosion mechanism
5.8.2. Erosion progression
5.8.3. Protection and erosion shield materials
6.1. Forms of casing construction
6.1.1. High pressure casings
6.1.2. Intermediate pressure casings
6.1.3. Low pressure casings
6.2. Horizontal joints
6.2.1. Flange design
6.2.2. Bolting
6.3. External connections
6.3.1. Steam inlets — HP and IP
6.3.2. HP exhausts
6.3.3. IP exhausts
6.3.4. Use of thermal skirts and piston rings
6.3.5. LP cylinders
6.3.6. Bled-steam connections
6.4. Casing materials
6.5. Support and alignment
6.5.1. HP and IP cylinder supports
6.5.2. LP cylinder supports
6.6. Casing and diaphragm glands
6.7. Lagging
7. Turbine rotors and couplings
7.1. Types of rotor construction
7.1.1. Design for high temperature operation
7.1.2. Cooling of IP rotors
7.2. Rotor materials
7.2.1. HP and IP rotors
7.2.2. LP rotors
7.3. Rotor testing and balancing
7.3.1. Thermal stability
7.3.2. Overspeed testing
7.3.3. Rotor balancing
7.3.4. Critical speeds
7.3.5. Rotor fast fracture risk assessment
7.4. Couplings
7.4.1. Flexible couplings
7.4.2. Semiflexible couplings
7.4.3. Rigid couplings
7.5. Rotor alignment
7.5.1. Alignment technique
7.5.2. On-line monitoring
8. Bearings, pedestals and turning gear
8.1. Journal bearings
8.1.1. Construction
8.1.2. Instrumentation
8.1.3. Bearing performance
8.1.4. Factors affecting bearing life
8.2. Thrust bearings
8.3. Pedestals
8.4. Oil sealing arrangements
8.5. Turning gear
8.5.1. Hand barring arrangement
8.5.2. Electrical turning gear (ETC)
9.1. Power generation
9.2. Mechanical drive
9.3. Combined heat and power (CHP)
9.4. Combined-cycle plant
10.1. Unit size and rating
10.2. Supercritical plant
10.3. Turbine blading development
Section 2. Turbine plant systems
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Governor characteristics
1.2.1 Simple scheme — boiler on pressure control
1.2.2 Turbine master load controller with boiler on pressure control
1.2.3 Boiler master load controller
1.3 Subsidiary functions
1.3.1 Acceleration feedback
1.3.2 Unloading gear
1.3.3 Governor speed reference
1.3.4 Closed-loop control of turbine electrical load
1.3.5 Overspeed testing
1.3.6 On-load testing
1.3.7 Automatic run-up and loading systems
1.4 Electronic governing part 1 ...2 ...3 ...4 ...5 ...6 ...7 ...8
1.4.1 Digital processing
1.5 Governor valve relays part 1 ...2 ...3 ...4
1.5.1 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 1
1.5.2 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 2
1.5.3 Governor valve relay and control unit Type 3
1.5.4 Reheater relief valves
1.6 Hydraulic fluid system part 1 ...2 ...3
1.6.1 Filtration
1.7 Boiler feed pump turbine governors
2 Steam chests, valves and loop pipes
2.1 Steam chest arrangements and construction
2.2 Steam chest materials
2.3 Cover seals
2.4 Steam strainers
2.5 Stop valves
2.6 Governor valves
2.7 Loop pipework
2.8 Crossover pipework
3.1 Possible hazards
3.2 Protection scheme
3.3 Electrically-signalled trips
3.4 Overspeed trip
3.5 Mechanically-operated trips
3.6 Operator tripping facilities
4.1 Classification of instrumentation
4.1.1 Supervisory instrumentation
4.1.2 Efficiency instrumentation
4.1.3 Auxiliary system instrumentation
4.1.4 Condition monitoring instrumentation
4.1.5 Instrumentation associated with protection and control equipment
4.1.6 Instrumentation to provide post-incident records
5.1 Tuning
5.2 Concrete foundations
5.3 Steel foundations
5.4 Spring foundations
5.5 Sub-foundation
6.1 Lubrication requirements and typical arrangements
6.2 Oil pumps
6.2.1 Main lubricating oil pump
6.2.2 Turbine-driven oil booster pump
6.2.3 AC and DC motor-driven auxiliary oil pumps
6.2.4 Jacking-oil pumps and priming pumps
6.2.5 Other pumps
6.3 Oil tanks
6.4 Piping
6.5 Oil coolers
6.6 Oil strainers and filters
6.7 Oil purifiers and coalescers
6.7.1 Centrifugal separation systems
6.7.2 Static oil purifiers/coalescers
6.8 Oils and greases
6.8.1 Oils
6.8.2 Greases
6.9 Jacking oil systems
6.10 Greasing systems
7.1 Function and system layout
7.1.1 Labyrinth glands
7.1.2 System layout
7.2 Temperature and pressure control
7.2.1 Temperature control
7.2.2 Pressure control
7.3 Gland steam condenser
8.1 Function and system layout
8.2 Control
9 LP exhaust spray cooling system
9.1 Function and system layout
9.2 Control
10.1 Function and system layout
10.1.1 Start-up drains
10.1.2 Continuous drains
11.1 Configuration
11.1.1 Pressure control valves
11.1.2 Isolating valves
11.1.3 Dump tube
11.2 By-pass systems for nuclear plant
11.3 By-pass systems for fossil-fired plant
11.4 Problems with by-pass systems
11.4.1 Noise
11.4.2 Water ingress
11.4.3 Thermal shock
11.4.4 Leakage flows
12.1 Typical operational regimes
12.1.1 Base load
12.1.2 Two-shifting
12.1.3 Load cycling
12.2 Influence on machine design
12.2.1 Turbine cylinders
12.2.2 Turbine rotors
12.2.3 Stress monitors
12.3 Forced-air cooling
12.3.1 Cooling of turbine
12.3.2 Cooling system
13.1 Influence of steam on components part 1 ...2 ...3
13.2 Water extraction devices
13.3 Erosion protection
13.4 Moisture separator reheaters (MSRs)
13.4.1 Separators part 1 ...2 ...3 ...4
13.4.2 Steam-to-steam reheaters part 1 ...2 ...3 ...4 ...5 ...6 ...7
13.5 Steam supply and drains systems
13.5.1 First-stage reheat
13.5.2 Second-stage reheat
13.5.3 Performance monitoring
13.5.4 System drains
13.5.5 Separator drains
13.5.6 Reheater drains
Section 3. Feedwater heating systems
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Functional needs of the system
1.3 System configuration
1.4 Component design parameters
1.5 Component levels
1.6 Maintenance of system water content
1.7 Protection against use of contaminated feedwater
1.8 Protection against ingress of water/steam to turbines
1.9 Summary
2.1 Introduction
2.2 System parameters
2.3 System configuration part 1 ...2 ...3
2.4 HP heater drains system
2.5 Pipework arrangement
3.1 Introduction
3.2 De-aerator heater
3.3 De-aerator storage tank
3.4 De-aerator elevation
3.5 Protection systems
3.6 Protection valves
3.7 Pipework
3.8 Boiler feed pump suction filters
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Low pressure system configuration part 1 ...2 ...3 ...4
4.3 Pipework and valves
6 High pressure feedwater heaters
6.1 Functional needs
6.2 Construction of high pressure heaters
6.3 Water header, tube bundle and shell
6.3.1 To find tube thickness
6.3.2 Area required for flow through the tube bundle
6.3.3 Tubeplate thickness
6.3.4 Water header wall thickness
6.3.5 Header branch thickness
6.3.6 Compensation for openings in the water header
6.3.7 Shell and dished end thickness
6.4 Heater tube length and tube supports
6.4.1 Length of U-tubes
6.4.2 Tube support plates
6.5 Bled-steam inlet
6.6 Thermal design
6.6.1 Desuperheating section
6.6.2 Condensing section
6.6.3 Drain cooling section
6.6.4 Other factors affecting thermal design
6.7 Horizontal high pressure heaters
6.8 Vertical high pressure heaters
6.9 Alternative designs of heater construction
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Thermal/hydraulic design part 1 ...2
7.3 De-aerator construction
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Surface type low pressure heaters
8.3 Construction of low pressure heaters
8.4 Water header, tube bundle and shell
8.4.1 Tube thickness
8.4.2 Flow area
8.4.3 Tubeplate thickness
8.4.4 Water header wall thickness
8.4.5 Water header branch thickness
8.4.6 Compensations for openings in the waterbox
8.4.7 Shell and dished end thickness
8.5 Heater tube length and tube supports
8.5.1 Tube support plates
8.6 Bled-steam inlets and drain outlets
8.7 Thermal design
8.8 External drain coolers
8.8.1 Thermal/hydraulic design of a flashing drain cooler
8.8.2 Thermal/hydraulic design of a water-to-water drain cooler
8.9 Direct contact low pressure heaters
9 Evaporators and other means of water treatment
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Types of bled-steam evaporator
9.3 Surface type evaporator
9.4 Flash type evaporators
10.1 HP feed system
10.2 De-aerator system
10.3 LP feed system
Section 4. Condensers, pumps and cooling water
CONDENSERS
2.1 Condenser surface area, turbine exhaust pressure and CW flow
2.1.1 Input data
2.1.2 Computation
3 Historical development and layout
3.1 Phase 1
3.2 Phase 2
3.3 Phase 3
4 Environmental considerations
4.1 Cooling water quality
4.1.1 Corrosion prevention part 1 ...2
4.1.2 Other copper-alloy tube failure mechanisms part 1 ...2
4.1.3 Material selection part 1 ...2
5.1 Theory
5.1.1 Heat rejected
5.1.2 Heat transfer
5.2 Design codes, standards and specifications
5.2.1 HEI Standards
5.2.2 BEAMA design recommendations
5.2.3 CEGB specifications
5.3 Influence of tubeplate and tubenest geometry on thermal performance
5.3.1 Subjective design evaluation part 1 ...2 ...3 ...4 ...5
5.3.2 Computer assisted design evaluation
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Constructional development
6.2.1 Construction materials
6.2.2 Design forces and stresses
6.2.3 Methods of manufacture and construction part 1 ...2 ...3 ...4 ...5 ...6 ...7
6.3 Protection and cleanliness of condensers
6.3.1 Debris filter
6.3.2 Condenser tube cleaning system
6.4 Special considerations
7 Operational life limiting constraints
7.1 Condenser air inleakage
7.1.1 Locating air leaks
7.1.2 Measurement of air leakage rate
7.2 Cooling water leakage in condensers
7.2.1 Fluorescein method
7.2.2 Foam or film methods
7.2.3 Bubbler devices
7.2.4 Tracer gas methods
7.2.5 Flame and smoke methods
7.2.6 Ultrasonic method
7.3 Condenser fouling and cleaning
7.3.1 Condenser fouling
7.3.2 On-load condenser cleaning
7.3.3 Off-load condenser cleaning
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Test codes and practices part 1 ...2 ...3
9.1 Aims and objectives
9.2 Research and development
9.2.1 Tubenest layout
9.2.2 Thermal performance properties of tubing
PUMPS
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Determination of air extraction quantity
10.2.1 The mechanism of air extraction
10.2.2 The condenser air cooling section
10.3 Review of air extraction equipment
10.3.1 Hydraulic air pumps
10.3.2 Liquid-ring type air pump
10.3.3 Air ejector/pump systems
10.3.4 Steam ejector/pump systems
10.4 Quick-start plant requirements
10.4.1 Type of plant
10.4.2 Starting times
11 Hydraulic aspects of centrifugal pumps
11.1 Specific speed
11.2 Net positive suction head
11.3 Suction specific speed
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Horizontal split-casing pumps
12.3 Vertical pumps
12.3.1 Vertical metal-casing pumps
12.3.2 Concrete volute pumps
12.4 Gearboxes
12.5 Shaft seals
12.6 Pump testing
12.7 Materials
13 Condenser extraction pumps part 1 ...2
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Feed pump developments
14.3 Advanced class feed pump construction
14.4 Axial thrust
14.5 Gland sealing part 1 ...2
14.6 Pump layout and drive part 1 ...2
14.7 Light load protection
14.8 Testing
14.9 PWR feed pumpsets
14.10 Future trends
15.1 Service water pumps
15.2 Chemical injection pumps
15.3 Fire pumps